Type of publication: Report

Site of publication: Africa Visa Openness

Date of the publication: November 2024

Link to the original document

 

Extracts from pages / Les extraits proviennent des ​pages : 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 32, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41.

2024: A year of change

The year 2024 witnessed important changes in AVOI scores. Of 54 countries on the continent, 17 have improved their AVOI score over the past year, building on the 15 countries that showed an improvement in the last edition. Twenty-nine (29) countries’ scores remain unchanged (2023: 35), while eight countries score lower in this edition (2023: 4). The net effect of these changes has been a slightly lower aggregate score than in 2023, down from 0.485 (2023) to 0.479 (2024). In the context of the AVOI, this score is on par with 2022, and higher than the aggregate score in the six prior years. In 2024, several countries have implemented visa policy changes. Some have been bold, instituting positive visa reforms which have resulted in tangible progress towards a more open continent. Many have involved bilateral changes in visa policy, often on a reciprocal basis and implemented in a seemingly coordinated manner. In some instances, policy changes have been more nuanced, while still resulting in tangible benefits for those directly affected, especially on the introduction of e-visas.

Other policy changes have created new impediments that undermine the ease of movement, resulting in more burdensome travel for some citizens. Some of these policy changes relate to domestic or foreign policy, political, security or other concerns. For example, during 2024, some countries removed the option of obtaining a visa on arrival, requiring travellers to obtain a visa (traditional or electronic) before embarking on their journey. In other instances, a significant number of countries have embraced new technologies and launched processes of digitising the travel and immigration process, which although well intended, added additional layers of requirements to the traveller and did not facilitate ease of movement. The introduction of ETAs by some countries is a case in point. Conflict in some parts of Africa plays a role in travel and migration more broadly, displacing people, forcing them to move, yet also impeding their movement in some cases, and often resulting in a lived experience for cross-border travellers that diverges from official policy.

Update on e-visas

E-visas offer travellers the option of obtaining a visa through electronic means ahead of travel. The key distinction between an e-visa and a traditional visa lies in the procedural convenience associated with e-visas which can be completed from the comfort of one’s home or office, or even while travelling. An important benefit lies in the fact that an e-visa does not require the applicant to part with their passport, or to travel to the relevant diplomatic representation office, which may be in another city (entailing extra cost, and being without a passport for a period of time – itself bringing with it considerable additional risk). Some of the key benefits of e-visas are:

• Convenience: the traveller applies electronically
• Reduced risk: the applicant retains their passport during the process
• Less cost: no shipping or travel costs, no time off work, and potentially lower application costs
• Efficiency: lower administrative overheads and consular facilities needed
• Better data capture: benefits of digital data capture and retention enable improved decision making and automation
• More visitors: lower turnaround times and administrative overhead can increase desire to visit a country

Fundamentally, an e-visa retains the key elements of a visa ahead of travel and is recognised as such in the AVOI. Information requirements from the applicant are often the same or similar, which may include biometric data, copies of air tickets, confirmed accommodation in the destination country, letters of invitation, a means test (such as bank statements), a scanned copy of the passport and so forth. Some African e-visa systems are more complex and demanding than others, and this remains the prerogative of the host country. E-visas can be considered a part of a country’s digital strategy and immigration modernisation process. They offer advantages to the prospective traveller in terms of cost, time and convenience, but depending on the specific country’s requirements, can still involve a significant administrative overhead. They also necessitate access to digital facilities for the application process. For the host country, they require investment in an appropriate web-based platform, and associated digital systems and processes, but offer the benefit of digitally capturing and storing applicant’s information. This imposes obligations around digital security and privacy

on the host country. While an e-visa represents technological progress and eases the administrative burden on both the traveller and authorities, it remains but an interim step and should be part of an effort that ultimately eases cross- border travel without visas, so as to fulfil the aspiration of a truly integrated continent. For e-visas to reduce the travel burden and increase efficiency, the process of obtaining them should be efficient, technically reliable, secure, transparent, affordable, and reduce the overall administrative overhead on the traveller.

Africa’s 2024 top 20

Benin, The Gambia, Rwanda and the Seychelles continue to occupy the top spot on the AVOI even this year. 16 of the top-20 ranked countries are located in West and Eastern Africa in equal parts (8 in West Africa and 8 in East Africa). North Africa is represented by one country (Mauritania) whilst Southern Africa accounts for three countries, namely Madagascar, Mauritius and Mozambique. Eighteen of the top-20 countries on the AVOI are classified as either lower-middle-income, or low-income countries, suggesting that lower income countries are often more embracing of liberal visa regimes. In contrast, several of the higher income countries continue to maintain restrictive visa regimes, perhaps owing to concerns around visa openness incentivizing inbound travel for purely economic reasons or creating pathways to irregular migration. It should be noted that visa-openness, as measured by the AVOI, relates to casual travel and is not linked to other rights, such as the right to undertake business activities, or take up residence. Nevertheless, two of the top-20 countries, classified as upper-middle-income (Mauritius) and high-income (Seychelles), are an exception, and may be explained in the context of their geographic location as Island States, and not typically subject to the same travel and migration routes as countries with land borders. As is shown in the graphic on the following page, five of the top-20 countries on the AVOI are Island States (Cabo Verde, Comoros, Mauritius, Madagascar and Seychelles). Their visa policies range from visa-free to visa-on-arrival, or a combination of both. Three of the landlocked countries rank in the top 20, and these are Rwanda, Burundi and Ethiopia. Burundi takes a predominantly visa-on-arrival approach for all citizens from other African countries, apart from those of six EAC Member States, who are granted visa free entry. Ethiopia also offers a visa-on-arrival to citizens of 46 countries, while citizens of four countries that previously qualified for a visa-on-arrival are now required to obtain this ahead of travel.

Spotlight on 2023–2024 performers

Some significant and notable improvements have occurred over the past year. Sierra Leone and Angola have shown the greatest increase in their AVOI score. Sierra Leone now offers citizens of 15 countries visa-free access, a slight increase over 2023 (13). Angola has added nine countries to its list of citizens who qualify for visa-free access, almost doubling the number of countries whose citizens previously qualified for the same (2023: 10).

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone has made significant strides in easing access to travellers, resulting in a 62% increase in its visa openness score, significantly changing its rank from 22nd in 2023 to 13th in 2024. This improvement follows Sierra Leone’s granting of visa-free access to citizens of two more countries – Ghana and Nigeria, whereas the policy before was granting visa on arrival. Since both Ghana and Nigeria are ECOWAS Member States, this has also impacted positively on ECOWAS’ regional reciprocity score, which now stands at 99%, leaving Guinea Bissau as the sole member to not fully reciprocate regional visa-free policies (with respect to citizens of Cabo Verde).

The most impactful policy change for Sierra Leone is that citizens of 20 countries no longer require a visa ahead of travel to the country. Today, only citizens from three countries are subjected to visa requirements ahead of travel, and these are from Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea and Ethiopia. While citizens of most African countries still require a visa to enter Sierra Leone, 35 now qualify for a visa on arrival, with citizens of 15 countries offered visa- free access. Sierra Leone has also concluded reciprocal agreements with some countries to exempt their citizens from paying for their visas: this benefits the following AU Member States: Botswana, Eswatini, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi and Mauritius.

Angola

Angola now offers visa-free access to citizens of 19 African countries, an increase from the 10 recorded in the 2023 AVOI report. In a presidential decree late in 2023 (No. 189/23), Angola announced sweeping changes to its visa regime for tourism purposes and extended visa-free access to citizens of an additional 98 countries mostly outside of Africa, for short stays of up to 30 days (and 90 days per year). Until that point, Angola had granted some African countries visa-free access, mainly under bilateral agreements (Mozambique, Namibia, São Tomé and Príncipe, South Africa and Zambia). Angola also announced simplified bureaucratic procedures in the granting of visas at its consular facilities as well as its e-visa portal, guaranteeing processing in under three working days for both. For citizens utilising the e-visa portal, pre-entry electronic authorisation is granted, and the traveller then obtains the visa at the port of entry. Information obtained from this portal suggests that the documentary requirements are relatively straightforward: applicants must be in possession of a relevant travel document (passport) and fulfil certain security criteria (such as not being included in a list of unwanted persons). Since Angola does not offer visa-on-arrival facilities, these changes are noteworthy and potentially impactful, given that the countries whose citizens now qualify for visa-free access, previously had to obtain a visa prior to travel. Even though Angola still requires a visa ahead of travel, which applies to the citizens of 34 countries, the newly introduced expedited processing of visas will ease movement to the country.

Angola also announced simplified bureaucratic procedures in the granting of visas at its consular facilities as well as its e-visa portal, guaranteeing processing in under three working days for both. For citizens utilising the e-visa portal, pre-entry electronic authorisation is granted, and the traveller then obtains the visa at the port of entry

Progress since 2016

Countries that have improved the most Over the period 2016 to 2024, 39 countries score higher now than they did in 2016, a reflection of overall progress towards easing travel between African countries. The following five countries have had the most improved scores on the AVOI: Benin (moved rank from 31 to 1), Ethiopia (from 46 to 19), Sierra Leone (from 32 to 13), Nigeria (from 25 to 6) and Gambia (from 18 to 1). Some are now joint top-ranked countries on the AVOI, a commendable achievement given the individual progress on embracing visa openness that they have made in recent years. The most striking observation about changes in visa openness since 2016 is that there has been a significant increase in the number of intra-Africa travel scenarios where African citizens are no longer subject to a visa requirement concerning casual travel. This metric has moved from 20% in 2016 to 28% in 2024, translating to a 40% increase in visa-free travel over the past nine years. These positive developments are illustrated in the first indicator , and while the rounded percentage remains unchanged, closer scrutiny of the data reveals that the number of visa-free travel scenarios between African countries has in fact increased to 803 (nine were added over the past year), resulting in the highest number of visa-free travel possibilities to date. The second indicator relates to the situation where a visa can be obtained on arrival. While nominally unchanged since 2016 but with a slight decrease over 2023, this metric is nevertheless representative of progress that has been made on easing travel. In terms of scoring, two opposing, yet often complementary developments underlie this metric. On the one hand, countries ease travel by moving from a visa-required (ahead of travel) policy to a visa-on-arrival, thereby easing the travel experience and contributing to a higher percentage score in this indicator. On the other hand, countries relax their visa policy by moving from a visa-on-arrival to a visa-free policy, thus lowering the applicable percentage.

The third indicator measures travel scenarios where the visa process must be completed ahead of travel. A lower percentage of travel scenarios to which such policies apply (55% in 2016 down to 47% in 2024) is a positive development. While this is an important improvement overall, there has also been a small increase over the past year in instances where a visa-required policy is being applied. The overall percentage remains considerably high, notwithstanding progress that has been made, and leaves much room for further evolution. While 26 African countries – close to half of the continent – offer an e-visa that can be obtained ahead of travel, this issue is not directly captured by the scoring, as it still requires a visa before travelling.

The most striking observation about changes in visa openness since 2016 is that there has been a significant increase in the number of intra-Africa travel scenarios where African citizens are no longer subject to a visa requirement concerning casual travel. This metric has moved from 20% in 2016 to 28% in 2024, translating to a 40% increase in visa-free travel over the past nine years

Overall visa openness has improved significantly in the period 2016–2024, notwithstanding a small decline in the combined score (visa-free and visa on arrival) since the previous report (from 0.485 to 0.479). The combined average score in 2024 nevertheless remains 13% higher than in 2016, and still exceeds the annual score recorded in most years since then. Amongst the top-10 countries on the AVOI, average visa openness remains unchanged compared to 2023, but is today 6% higher than it was in 2016. Among the top-20 countries on the AVOI, average visa openness has increased by 16% over this period. It can be concluded therefore that the leading countries have continued to make progress in easing movement of persons. Amongst the current top- 10 countries, eight have their score higher than in 2016, while 14 of the top 20 have improved their score over this period. Note that the composition of the top-10 and top-20 groups has changed over time, and each year’s average score relates only to the countries falling into each of these groups.

Electronic Travel Authorisations: a visa by another name?

ETAs are considered a form of electronic pre-approval that destination countries may require of travellers ahead of embarking on their trip. They are typically reserved and intended for travellers that otherwise already qualify for visa-free entry (and where little is known about the traveller ahead of travel) and are aimed at streamlining the travel process while adding security pre-screening and data efficiency to this digital and often largely automated process. Like a visa, it is important to recognise that an ETA only provides permission for the holder to travel to the issuing country, and that entry remains subject to the final determination of immigration officials at the border. ETAs enable the issuing country to identify certain risks posed by individual travellers by comparing their details to national or international databases, sometimes to screen for infectious diseases (some ETAs may require the applicant to undertake a health check for public health reasons), or to check for a criminal record (character criteria). Some of the information is gathered through self-declarations by the applicant, while other information may be obtained by means, for example through automated cross-checks by the host country against information that is either already at hand or contained in international databases and other sources. Algorithms may also be developed to help detect other risk factors. While ETAs are not a common feature in African travel regimes, several electronic systems to manage visa- exempt arrivals ahead of time have been in place for several decades elsewhere.

Early adopters of an ETA include Australia (1996), followed by the United States (2008) and Canada (2015)4 . More recently, the United Kingdom (UK) introduced a limited ETA (late 2023) while the European Union (EU) aims to launch its own ETA 5 by mid-2025. Several other countries offer ETA systems, including Korea, New Zealand and Mexico, while Thailand, Israel and Japan plan to launch an ETA for citizens that qualify for visa-free entry soon. Globally, ETAs display several common traits. Most commonly intended for short visits only (90 days or less), they generally cover multiple entries to a country and are valid for several years, with two-three years being the norm, and as many as five years (Canada). They are also not limited to tourism travel but tend to cover certain classes of business- related travel too, or even short-term study. A general proviso is that business travel under an ETA may not involve earning an income from a local company; in other words, local employment or sales are not permissible, while attending conferences, trade shows and business meetings would pass. ETAs typically also don’t require the applicant to provide a detailed travel itinerary and are generally limited to basic biometric data alongside some security-related and health questions.

In terms of cost, this is generally in the range of USD 5–USD 15, with several countries facilitating the application process through a dedicated smartphone app. For citizens of African countries and abroad that previously required a visa ahead of travel, however, the ETA offers improvements in terms of ease of use, time savings and cost, compared to obtaining a visa ahead of travel. The attractiveness of an ETA to help digitise aspects of the immigration process for travellers, for national security purposes through pre-screening, for basic information capture and data management alongside efficiency benefits, cannot be disputed. From a traveller’s perspective, in terms of easing and facilitating the movement of people across borders, the benefits are often tenuous and are entirely conditional on the substantive aspects and costs of the ETA. New or additional costs to travellers that go beyond at most a nominal contribution towards system cost recovery by the host country (bearing in mind demonstrable efficiency improvements and savings in countries’ immigration overheads and infrastructure), ETA lead times that undermine spontaneous travel, the need for confirmed itineraries and accommodation, can all serve as impediments to free movement of people and undermine the inherent benefits that ETA systems potentially offer. The line between sometimes onerous ETA systems and e-visa processes becomes blurred.

Early adopters of an ETA include Australia (1996), followed by the United States (2008) and Canada (2015)4 . More recently, the United Kingdom (UK) introduced a limited ETA (late 2023) while the European Union (EU) aims to launch its own ETA 5 by mid-2025

Proven enablers of freedom of movement

The AU recognises eight RECs and considers them the building blocks of the broader continental integration initiative. This approach ensures that these RECs remain the engine rooms advancing deeper integration and that the progress made is elevated to continental level. The following are the AU-recognised RECs:

• Arab Maghreb Union (AMU)
• Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD)
• Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
• East African Community (EAC)
• Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
• Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)
• Southern African Development Community (SADC)

Integration within the RECs occurs at different levels and pace. It may involve liberalising trade flows by reducing or removing tariffs on intra-regional trade, collaboration on trade facilitation measures such as improved border processes and facilities, infrastructure development, and easing the movement of people across their national borders. Integration follows on from, and results in, cooperation in various fora, be it peace and security, public health initiatives and responses, sustainable resource management (for instance among coastal economies), or responses to natural disasters. Several RECs have established regional protocols on intra-regional movement of people. These are often at different stages of implementation with some agreed but not ratified. The cohesive nature of RECs can be a catalyst for initiatives and policies on intra-regional movement of persons.

Where these initiatives are followed by high levels of adoption, this may sometimes serve as a springboard for countries to extend similar liberties towards nationals from outside of the region. Generally, RECs that maintain higher levels of regional openness also fare better, on average, at the continental level. Within the RECs, bilateral initiatives sometimes compensate for the lack of regional commitments or progress on implementation of protocols. Some of these initiatives could be more progressive, like the case of Namibia and Botswana, who signed an agreement in 2023 to simplify their mutual border controls by allowing each other’s nationals to pass through their common border using only their national identity document. Similar examples occur elsewhere, for example within the EAC.

Tracking average REC scores

Alongside countries’ individual rankings, this report also measures a REC’s average visa openness, which is derived by combining each member state’s individual score in that REC, divided by the number of members. It offers insights into regional attitudes towards easing the movement of people more broadly, and in this respect, established trends towards visa openness over a period of time. Average visa openness often correlates with regional visa-free reciprocity scores, which provide insights not only into advances in freeing the movement within a region, but also alludes to possible policy congruence in this regard.

In 2024, four of the eight RECs have achieved higher average scores on the AVOI than in 2023, with the remaining four scoring lower for varying reasons. EAC, ECCAS, SADC and AMU all improved on their previous regional averages. CEN-SAD, ECOWAS, IGAD and COMESA recorded a slightly lower average score than 2023. Five of the eight RECs also have higher scores than the pre-pandemic year, 2019, reflecting sustained progress towards greater visa openness and with that, the ease of movement. While EAC is one of three RECs whose average score in this year’s report is lower than in 2019, it is important to consider that changes in the bloc’s membership – with new members acceding (the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Somalia in the last two years) – complicate direct comparisons over time.

ECOWAS achieves the highest average score amongst the eight RECs, notwithstanding a slightly lower score compared to 2023. The REC adopted a Protocol Relating to Free Movement of Persons, Residence and Establishment in 1979, under which member states grant visa-free travel to each other’s nationals, and which also accounts for the near perfect regional reciprocity score as seen in the next section. Experience with this regional visa-free policy may have helped drive member states’ broader visa openness too: seven of its members offer visa- free access to at least 20 other African countries, thus exceeding the REC membership pool. Two REC members – Benin and The Gambia – remain in top spot on the index. But there are emerging challenges: the announcement of leaders of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, in January 2024, of their states’ intended withdrawal from ECOWAS affects the REC’s prospects in the years to come, undermining the region’s significant achievements in regional integration, and removing the three landlocked countries’ free-trade status, including preferential access to ports in the region. Without doubt, free movement of people in the region would be severely impacted by this announcement.

In 2024, four of the eight RECs have achieved higher average scores on the AVOI than in 2023, with the remaining four scoring lower for varying reasons. EAC, ECCAS, SADC and AMU all improved on their previous regional averages. CEN-SAD, ECOWAS, IGAD and COMESA recorded a slightly lower average score than 2023

SADC scores second highest in average visa openness. Its score has been on an upward trajectory in recent years. This has been driven largely by Angola, which, in late 2023, almost doubled the number of countries whose nationals now qualify for visa-free access, from 10 to 19. Other changes include South Africa and Malawi offering visa-free access to Ghana nationals, Mozambique granting Senegal visa-free status, as well as some changes in Namibia and Tanzania’s visa regimes. Namibia announced that it would in future require visas from nationals whose countries do not reciprocate visa-free access, effective April 2025. However, at this stage no AU Member State should be impacted by this development. CEN-SAD’s regional score has declined slightly since last year when it held joint second place with SADC. The treaty establishing CEN-SAD lists the free movement of people as a core objective, even if it has not been uniformly implemented. However, with CEN-SAD largely overlapping with ECOWAS, several of its members have dropped restrictions on the movement of people within the region. CEN-SAD’s regional average score has been negatively impacted by visa restrictions applied by Burkina Faso on 11 countries, which no longer qualify for visa on arrival. The Central African Republic, meanwhile, implemented visa-free access to nationals from four nearby countries. Chad and Comoros both changed aspects of their visa regime, with a slight tightening by Comoros and a slight easing by Chad (towards Benin). Togo has moved away from visa on arrivals to requiring a visa ahead of arrival, including through its e-visa portal. This is a roll-back and impacts 37 countries.

EAC scored slightly higher in 2024, due to a combination of factors. On the one hand, Uganda and Tanzania have eased access to the DRC and Ethiopia respectively. Somalia, a top-20 ranked country on the AVOI, has recently become a full member of EAC, with DRC having joined the REC in 2022. Kenya now requires an ETA ahead of travel, and only exempts EAC members (this privilege extends to Burundi, DRC, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, while at the time of writing, Somalia was not included in this list of exempt countries). COMESA scores fifth amongst the RECs, slightly lower than in 2023 where it ranked fourth. Several COMESA members implemented changes to their visa policies: Ethiopia tightened its visa requirements towards nationals of Egypt, Eritrea and Sudan from visa on arrival to visa required ahead of travel, while abolishing visas for nationals of South Africa and Morocco. Uganda removed its visa requirement for DRC while Eritrea did the same with respect to nationals of Kenya. Kenya’s requiring of an ETA prior to travel for most travellers from other African countries lowered the score, notwithstanding exemptions for EAC Member States. IGAD scores slightly lower in 2024 following a significant increase in 2023. However, it still scores lower than before the pandemic in 2019. Overall, in four intra-regional scenarios there has been a tightening of visa policy (from visa-on-arrival to visa-required-ahead- of-travel), while in four other scenarios, the requirement for obtaining a visa was dispensed with. Among the eight IGAD members, half are also members of the EAC. Several of its members rank among the lowest on the index, with some visa policy changes noted from Kenya, Eritrea and Ethiopia.

ECCAS achieved the highest nominal year-on-year increase in its regional visa openness score amongst all RECs. ECCAS comprises several central African states, the majority of which rank in the lower third on the index. The significant improvement in the regional average is driven primarily by Angola’s removal of visa requirement from nationals of nine countries, and the Central African Republic’s abolishing of visa requirements ahead of travel for nationals of Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger and Burundi. Chad now provides visa-free access to Benin, while Cameroon requires a visa from nationals of Mali. Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) members within ECCAS generally offer visa-free entry to each other’s citizens. These latest developments have elevated ECCAS’s rank, after recording the lowest regional average score in 2023. AMU is currently the lowest ranked REC in terms of average score and sits slightly below ECCAS. Its score has however seen a slight improvement in 2024 compared to 2023 owing to several visa-related policy changes amongst its five North African members. Libya dropped its visa requirement for nationals of Algeria, while Tunisia did likewise for Benin. Mauritania tightened its policy towards Burundi, which now requires a visa on arrival, and Morocco requires the same from nationals of Côte d’Ivoire, while abolishing visas for nationals of Cabo Verde. Within AMU, Mauritania’s visa openness ranks high above the regional average and falls within the top 10 on the overall index, Tunisia ranks in the middle of the index, while Morocco, Algeria and Libya rank in the bottom quarter.

Reciprocity within RECs

Regional reciprocity is a measure of how aligned the visa regimes of individual member states within a REC are with respect to one another. Reciprocity on its own only measures the bilateral alignment of visa policies within a REC and makes no claim on visa openness. A high reciprocity score therefore indicates that the visa policies between the members of a REC are largely harmonised, while a low score indicates that visa policies are largely mismatched. This alignment can relate to reciprocity on visa-free policies, but similarly measures alignment of visa-on-arrival, and visa-required- ahead-of-travel policies. This report focuses on how REC members extend visa-free-entry policies to one another on a reciprocal basis. A high score in the visa-free reciprocity metric is therefore indicative of a high degree of harmonisation of visa-free policies within a REC. Countries are generally open to arrivals of each other’s nationals and permit easy access, without the need for a visa. High scores in this variable tend to be reflective not only of regional policies on the intra-REC free movement of persons, but also high levels of adoption and compliance with such protocols. RECs with high scores tend to be well integrated economically too. Low reciprocity scores emanate from a lack of harmonisation of visa policies, one country may require a visa on arrival, while the other offers visa-free entry.

AMU is currently the lowest ranked REC in terms of average score and sits slightly below ECCAS. Its score has however seen a slight improvement in 2024 compared to 2023 owing to several visa-related policy changes amongst its five North African members. Libya dropped its visa requirement for nationals of Algeria, while Tunisia did likewise for Benin

Or where both countries compel a visa, but one offers a visa on arrival while the other requires nationals to apply for a visa ahead of travel. Scenarios such as these suggest a lack of regional policy framework on the movement of persons, poor adoption, or point towards specific issues underlying the bilateral relationship of these countries. The scores above capture aggregate positive (visa-free) reciprocity within the respective RECs: the extent to which member states grant nationals of each other visa-free access on a reciprocal basis. Overall, there has been a modest decline in the level of visa-free reciprocity, to 20.3% in 2024, compared to 21% in 2023. Within the confines of RECs, reciprocity is generally much higher, ranging from 99% (ECOWAS) to 14% (IGAD)

Visa openness in Africa: The African Continental Free Trade Area

Promises of a more integrated continent

As one of the flagship projects of the AU, the AfCFTA promises to transform Africa in several ways, laying the foundation for unprecedented levels of economic integration through creation of the world’s largest free trade agreement for goods and services – based on number of members. The AfCFTA is comprehensive and addresses several levers that can contribute to a more integrated continent. There is optimism that the potential impacts of the AfCFTA will be significant. A World Bank study on the economic impacts of the AfCFTA14 estimates that total African exports would increase by almost 29% by 2035, driven mostly by an expected substantial increase in intra- African trade in African made goods and services. While the economic and social gains from the AfCFTA will largely stem from reduced barriers to intra-Africa trade, and export-led industrialisation, these developments do not happen in silos. The AfCFTA is comprehensive and ambitious, and its disciplines cover trade in goods and services, investment, competition policy, dispute settlement, women and youth in trade, digital trade, and many related disciplines. Although its full implementation is delayed, significant progress has been made. This report provides an update on several of these developments.

The AfCFTA Protocol on Trade in Services

Trade in services plays a crucial role in economic growth and regional integration: as an economic activity in its own right (e.g. the provision of cross-border telecommunication services, consulting services); as complementary to trade in goods (e.g. financial and legal services, intellectual property as an input on the manufacture of goods); and is directly linked to the movement of people (e.g. professionals, truck drivers moving goods across borders, students obtaining education services in another country, engineers working on an infrastructure project abroad). The AfCFTA Protocol on Trade in Services entered into force on 30 May 2019 and seeks to create a single market for trade in services through the progressive liberalisation of services in a range of sectors commencing with five priority ones: business, communications, financial, tourism, and transport services. In each of these sectors, state parties are exchanging schedules of specific commitments, and working on regulatory cooperation towards reform of domestic regulation to facilitate open markets.

Commitments are made in four “services modes” of supply (Modes 1–4), where Mode 1 covers the provision of a service from one country to another (cross-border supply). Mode 2 relates to the consumption of services abroad in the territory of another country (for example, tourism, education, or when seeking medical treatment). Mode 3 relates to the provision of services abroad, through the establishment of commercial presence in the territory of another country. Finally, Mode 4 commitments relate to the (temporary) movement of persons to another country to provide a service, for example in the fields of engineering, education, technology, medical, or the supply of other consulting services. It is anticipated that in each of the five priority sectors, AfCFTA state parties will offer access for movement of persons under Mode 4.

Update on the Guided Trade Initiative

The GTI is an initiative championed by the AfCFTA Secretariat to begin trade under the Agreement. While the GTI is not explicitly provided for in the AfCFTA, its legal basis was adopted by the AfCFTA Council of Ministers, whose mandate includes taking measures to ensure implementation of the Agreement. The GTI involves trade between countries that have joined the initiative, in products for which any tariff treatment and rules of origin (RoO) have been finalised. It is a unique initiative to test the broader institutional and operational environment of the AfCFTA while facilitating the start of commercially meaningful trade under the arrangement. The GTI signals to traders and governments that Africa is ready to embrace these new trade opportunities. The GTI initially comprised eight countries (Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Rwanda, Tanzania and Tunisia), while Algeria joined later, and 96 products (including horticulture products, pharmaceuticals, rubber, coffee and tea, and others) to be traded preferentially under the AfCFTA. This requires administrative and regulatory readiness by the participating countries, and alignment with the provisions of the AfCFTA. Early transactions, including agrifood products from Tunisia to Cameroon, Kenyan batteries to Ghana, or Rwandan coffee to Ghana, were guided through the trade process and assisted with customs procedures at the port of export and import.

South Africa joined the initiative in January 2024 with shipments of home appliances and mining equipment to Ghana and Kenya, marking an important milestone and enabling possibilities for new trade between participating countries in South, East, West and North Africa. Under a Phase II of the GTI, announced by the AfCFTA Secretariat, more than 30 state parties expressed interest to join and at the Biashara Afrika Forum of October 2024 held in Kigali, Rwanda, a showcase of interest was expressed in agriculture and agribusiness, pharmaceuticals, automotive, transport and logistics, and digital technologies. The GTI currently has representation from all regions in Africa, including Island States. The GTI is a commendable initiative and important catalyst to help drive progress in the AfCFTA, yet it must ultimately be seen as a bridging facility to enable preferential trade between countries that have completed critical aspects of the trade negotiations, and in turn, to finalise national legal processes to implement these outcomes. From the perspective of movement of people, the GTI can be leveraged as a case for acceleration of movement of persons for the purposes of intra-African trade – including but not limited to trade in services. This is essential because people must follow both the goods and services. Building on the GTI momentum, it is important to work towards visa-free movement for AfCFTA-related business.

The GTI initially comprised eight countries (Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Rwanda, Tanzania and Tunisia), while Algeria joined later, and 96 products (including horticulture products, pharmaceuticals, rubber, coffee and tea, and others) to be traded preferentially under the AfCFTA

AU Protocol on the Free Movement of Persons

The PFMP was adopted by AU Member States in 2018, and contains several migration mobility provisions, aimed at progressively freeing the movement of persons across African borders, and extending this to the right to enter, reside and establish in other African countries. However, it remains a different undertaking from the AfCFTA. To date, 32 member states have signed the Protocol, yet notwithstanding the positive momentum towards a more integrated continent, only four countries have ratified it (15 are needed for the Protocol to enter into force). The last ratification was in July 2019 (Niger). The first phase of implementation would involve visa-free travel, with more progressive rights to follow. Despite the relatively high initial endorsement of the PFMP, the lack of progress suggests deep-rooted concerns about the scale and scope of the Protocol, perhaps a concern about the depth and pace of commitments it requires, and fears about a loss of policy autonomy. Notwithstanding the largely unchanged status quo, efforts to ease the movement of persons – often within the regional context –remain positive precursors to creating a broader platform for human mobility across AU member states.

Single African Air Transport Market

The Single African Air Transport Market (SAATM) is an initiative to significantly expand intra-African air connectivity through a range of measures, including deregulation and increased transnational competition. The SAATM initiative considers enhanced traffic rights for eligible airlines, improved connectivity schedules and common standards on issues such as safety and security, consumer protection and competition, as important building blocks towards a fully liberalised African air transport market. One of the pillars considered for further liberalisation extends to creating more opportunities for airlines to operate flights that drop off and collect passengers in third countries. New routes and improved frequencies would offer travellers wider choices, encourage lower fares, and help grow air travel to facilitate tourism, trade in goods and services, economic opportunity and investment. As one of the AU’s flagship projects under Agenda 2063, the SAATM was officially launched in 2018 at a Summit of the AU Assembly of Heads of State and Government. Thirty-seven countries, representing more than 80% of Africa’s aviation market, have signed up to the SAATM. However, in order for the initiative to deliver on its objectives and to significantly advance intra-African connectivity, it requires the political will to be fully operationalised.

Breaking down barriers:Protocol on Women and Youth in Trade

An AfCFTA Protocol on Women and Youth in Trade was finalised earlier in 2024. It aims to promote and attain “sustainable and inclusive socio-economic development, equality for women and youth”16 . In many ways, this is groundbreaking, moving beyond gender equality and inclusivity as a general objective, to having provisions with concrete obligations to empower women and youth in trade. The Protocol requires countries to pay particular attention to women and youth engaged in intra-African trade, including support for access to trade related infrastructure. This would include improvements to border infrastructure, to ease cross-border customs processes, and related trade facilitation issues. The Protocol contains several specific and targeted provisions aimed at assisting women and youth to enhance their participation in cross-border trade. For example, easing non-tariff barriers, measures to improve access to finance, training to improve compliance with regulatory requirements and standards, by focusing on those aspects specifically affecting this target group. These are commendable goals.